Dengue is an acute, febrile infectious disease caused by a virus of Flaviridae family and is transmitted through the mosquito Aedes aegypti. Currently, dengue fever is considered a major public health problems world wide.

Dengue Fever

* Dengue [DEN-ghee] is a flu-like viral disease spread by the bite of infected mosquitoes. Dengue hemorrhagic fever is a severe, often fatal, complication of dengue.
* Dengue occurs in most tropical areas of the world. Most U.S. cases occur in travelers returning from abroad, but the dengue risk is increasing for persons living along the Texas-Mexico border and in other parts of the southern United States.
* There is no specific treatment for dengue.
* Prevention centers on avoiding mosquito bites in areas where dengue occurs or might occur and eliminating breeding sites.

What is dengue fever? What is dengue hemorrhagic fever?

Dengue fever is a flu-like illness spread by the bite of an infected mosquito.

Dengue hemorrhagic fever is a severe, often fatal, complication of dengue fever.

What is the infectious agent that causes dengue?

Dengue and dengue hemorrhagic fever are caused by any of the dengue family of viruses. Infection with one virus does not protect a person against infection with another.

How is dengue spread?

Dengue is spread by the bite of an Aedes mosquito. The mosquito transmits the disease by biting an infected person and then biting someone else.

Where is dengue found?

Dengue viruses occur in most tropical areas of the world. Dengue is common in Africa, Asia, the Pacific, Australia, and the Americas. It is widespread in the Caribbean basin. Dengue is most common in cities but can be found in rural areas. It is rarely found in mountainous areas above 4,000 feet.

The mosquitoes that transmit dengue live among humans and breed in discarded tires, flower pots, old oil drums, and water storage containers close to human dwellings. Unlike the mosquitoes that cause malaria, dengue mosquitoes bite during the day.

What are the signs and symptoms of dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever?

Dengue fever usually starts suddenly with a high fever, rash, severe headache, pain behind the eyes, and muscle and joint pain. The severity of the joint pain has given dengue the name “breakbone fever.” Nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite are common. A rash usually appears 3 to 4 days after the start of the fever. The illness can last up to 10 days, but complete recovery can take as long as a month. Older children and adults are usually sicker than young children.

Most dengue infections result in relatively mild illness, but some can progress to dengue hemorrhagic fever. With dengue hemorrhagic fever, the blood vessels start to leak and cause bleeding from the nose, mouth, and gums. Bruising can be a sign of bleeding inside the body. Without prompt treatment, the blood vessels can collapse, causing shock (dengue shock syndrome). Dengue hemorrhagic fever is fatal in about 5 percent of cases, mostly among children and young adults.

How soon after exposure do symptoms appear?

The time between the bite of a mosquito carrying dengue virus and the start of symptoms averages 4 to 6 days, with a range of 3 to 14 days. An infected person cannot spread the infection to other persons but can be a source of dengue virus for mosquitoes for about 6 days.

How is dengue diagnosed?

Dengue is diagnosed by a blood test.

Who is at risk for dengue?

Anyone who is bitten by an infected mosquito can get dengue fever. Risk factors for dengue hemorrhagic fever include a person’s age and immune status, as well as the type of infecting virus. Persons who were previously infected with one or more types of dengue virus are thought to be at greater risk for developing dengue hemorrhagic fever if infected again.

What is the treatment for dengue and dengue hemorrhagic fever?

There is no specific treatment for dengue. Persons with dengue fever should rest and drink plenty of fluids. They should be kept away from mosquitoes for the protection of others. Dengue hemorrhagic fever is treated by replacing lost fluids. Some patients need transfusions to control bleeding.

How common is dengue?

In tropical countries around the world, dengue is one of the most common viral diseases spread to humans by mosquitoes. Tens of millions of cases of dengue fever and up to hundreds of thousands of cases of dengue hemorrhagic fever occur each year.

In the United States, approximately 100 cases of dengue are reported each year in travelers returning from tropical areas. Many more cases probably go unreported. A few persons have become infected with dengue while living in the United States. Aedes mosquitoes are found in Texas, Florida, and other southern states, and locally acquired dengue has been reported three times since 1980 in southern Texas.

Is dengue an emerging infectious disease?

Yes. All types of dengue virus are re-emerging worldwide and causing larger and more frequent epidemics, especially in cities in the tropics. The emergence of dengue as a major public health problem has been most dramatic in the western hemisphere. Dengue fever has reached epidemic levels in Central America and is threatening the United States.

Several factors are contributing to the resurgence of dengue fever:

* No effective mosquito control efforts are underway in most countries with dengue.
* Public health systems to detect and control epidemics are deteriorating around the world.
* Rapid growth of cities in tropical countries has led to overcrowding, urban decay, and substandard sanitation, allowing more mosquitoes to live closer to more people.
* The increase in non-biodegradable plastic packaging and discarded tires is creating new breeding sites for mosquitoes.
* Increased jet air travel is helping people infected with dengue viruses to move easily from city to city.

Dengue hemorrhagic fever is also on the rise. Persons who have been infected with one or more forms of dengue virus are at greater risk for the more severe disease. With the increase in all types of virus, the occurrence of dengue hemorrhagic fever becomes more likely.

How can dengue be prevented?

There is no vaccine to prevent dengue. Prevention centers on avoiding mosquito bites when traveling to areas where dengue occurs and when in U.S. areas, especially along the Texas-Mexico border, where dengue might occur. Eliminating mosquito breeding sites in these areas is another key prevention measure.

Avoid mosquito bites when traveling in tropical areas:

* Use mosquito repellents on skin and clothing.
* When outdoors during times that mosquitoes are biting, wear long-sleeved shirts and long pants tucked into socks.
* Avoid heavily populated residential areas.
* When indoors, stay in air-conditioned or screened areas. Use bednets if sleeping areas are not screened or air-conditioned.
* If you have symptoms of dengue, report your travel history to your doctor.

Eliminate mosquito breeding sites in areas where dengue might occur:

* Eliminate mosquito breeding sites around homes. Discard items that can collect rain or run-off water, especially old tires.
* Regularly change the water in outdoor bird baths and pet and animal water containers.

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Adenovir Symptoms

OCCURRENCE
The infections caused by this virus are much more common among infants and children. Due to this child care centers are at risk of the infections caused by this virus. Infections can occur at any part and any time of the year but they are most common among winters, springs and early summers. This virus also cause conjunctivitis and pharyngeal conjunctivitis fever but in older children in summers. Majority of population experiences this virus as age of almost 10 years. Since there are many different types of adenoviruses repeated infections can occur.
SYMPTOMS
• Febrile respiratory disease
It is infection of respiratory tract and is very common. Besides this other symptoms are sore throat which is inflammation of pharyngeal membrane, inflammation of nasal membranes running nose, cough, swollen lymph nodes and many others. It can also cause bronchitis in children under the age of 3 years. It also effects lower respiratory tract.
• Conjunctivitis (pinkeye)
It is the inflammation of membranes of eye and inner surface of eye lids. This cn cause excessive discharge from eyes, red eyes and tearing. Keratoconjunctivitis is very common.
• Pharyngoconjunctival fever
As the name indicates it is caused when this virus infects eye and respiratory tract. Symptoms include red eyes and sore throat. It also includes fever, rhinitis and swallow lymph nodes.
• Gastroenteritis
It is the inflammation of the stomach ,small intestine and large intestine.
• UTI (urinary tract infections)
It includes sometimes linked to urinary tract infections, which causes increase in urine frequency, burning pain, or bloody urine.
TRANSMISSION
• It is air borne virus and if inhaled can cause infection.
• Swimming in contaminated water, using contaminated lens solutions or eye instruments, using contaminated towels and rubbing eyes with contaminated fingers causes the virus to infect the eyes.
• Washing hands after using toilet should be made mandatory to avoid this virus.
IT IS A VIRAL VECTOR
Adenovirus DNA does not interrupt in natural genome and shows no replication during cell division. This doesn’t allow their use in basic research but it has other applications which include:
• Gene Therapy
• Vaccination
Besides having such important applications they are still dangerous because when they come in contact with human beings they trigger a very potentially dangerous immune response.to overcome this problem scientists are trying to find such tyoe of this virus which doesn’t have such dangerous effects
WHAT IS VIRAL VECTOR
Viral vector iscommonly used by molecular biologists to incorporate genetic material into the cells. This process can be performed in two ways that is inside a living organism (in vivo) or living organism (in vitro)
DIAGNOSIS
Although this virus is important and has some distinguishing features but still it’s quite difficult to distinguish it from other viruses. To identify it properly cultures are made by taking organism from eye secretions, sputum or urine..The extent of infection can be estimated from the results of blood tests that measure increases in the quantity of antibodies the immune system produces to fight it. Antibody levels begin to rise about a week after infection occurs and remain elevated for about a year.
TREATMENT
Treatment of adenovirus is for relieving the symptoms caused by it. Rest is recommended with medication to have good results. Aspirin should be avoided in children because it causes Reye’s syndrome. Topical corticosteroids can be used for eye treatment.  Hospitalization is usually recommended for severe pneumonia and keratoconjuctivitis. There is no effective anti-virus still discovered.
PREVENTION FROM ADENOVIRUS

Strict Hand washing is best way of prevention from adenovirus. Moreover hospital related patients should use gloves and gowns before entering into child’s room.

COMPLICATIONS
1: Adenovirus pneumonia usually gets converted into lung disease. This is quite rare but still it has 10 percent mortality rate.
2: Children with weak immune system develop more complications from the adenovirus.
3: Intestinal adenovirus causes intussusception (an intestinal blockage which occurs when one part of intestine slides past another site).This cons=dition is emergency and it usually occurs in children. Symptoms include bloody stool, abdominal swelling, knees flexed to chest, loud cries from pain, weakness, and vomiting.
4: Usually a child retains adenovirus for long time with no major symptoms. But sometimes this causes tonsillitis or infection of adenoids(located in neck and throat).

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Anorexia is an emotional disorder that focuses on food, but it is actually an attempt to deal with perfectionism and a desire to control things by strictly regulating food and weight. People with anorexia often feel that their self-esteem is tied to how thin they are. It is often coupled with a distorted self imagewhich may be maintained by various cognitive biases that alter how the affected individual evaluates and thinks about her or his body, food and eating. Persons with anorexia nervosa continue to feel hunger, but deny themselves all but very small quantities of food. The average caloric intake of a person with anorexia nervosa is 600-800 calories per day, but there are extreme cases of complete self-starvation. It is a serious mental illness with a high incidence of comorbidity and the highest mortality rate of any psychiatric disorder.

Types of disease
There are two identifiable types of anorexia nervosa:
Restricting Type:
Throughout the present episode of anorexia nervosa, there has been no regular occurrence of binge eating or purging (self-induced vomiting or the misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas).
Binge Eating/Purging Type:
Throughout the present episode of anorexia nervosa, there has been a regular occurrence of binge eating or purging.

What is the cause?
People with anorexia have an extreme fear of gaining weight, which causes them to try to maintain a weight far less than normal. They will do almost anything to avoid gaining weight, including staving themselves or exercising too much. People with anorexia have a distorted body image — they think they are fat (even when they are extremely thin) and won’t maintain a proper weight.
People with anorexia have an extreme fear of gaining weight, which causes them to try to maintain a weight far less than normal. They will do almost anything to avoid gaining weight, including staving themselves or exercising too much. People with anorexia have a distorted body image — they think they are fat (even when they are extremely thin) and won’t maintain a proper weight.
What are signs and symptoms?
Weight loss of at least 15 per cent below the normal ideal body weight for a person of the same sex, age and height.
Stopping of periods or delayed development in puberty.
Self-induced weight loss. Methods can include fasting, low food intake, excessive exercise, diuretic medicines (medicines that make you urinate more) laxatives, diet pills or vomiting. Sometimes people make themselves sick to lose weight. Others take excessive exercise.
Sufferers have a constant fear of gaining weight, as well as a feeling of being fat, even when their weight is much less than that of other people of the same height.
Sufferers may feel bloated, even after a small meal.
They may lose interest in socialising with friends.
Other side-effects include tiredness, feeling cold, constipation and stomachache.
Some patients also develop additional disorders, such as bulimia.
Having an unusual interest in food, calories, nutrition
Inability to realistically assess one’s own body weight
Striving for perfection
Depression, anxiety, or irritability
Infrequent or irregular menstrual periods in females
Laxative, diuretic, or diet pill use
Frequent illness
Wearing loose clothing to hide weight loss
Feeling worthless or hopeless
Social withdrawal
Physical symptoms that develop over time, including: low tolerance of cold weather, brittle hair and nails, dry or yellowing skin, anemia, constipation, swollen joints and a new growth of thin hair over the body
Diagnostic criteria
A. Body weight is less than is considered normal for height and age. Weight is consistently less than 85% of that expected, which can be due to either weight loss, or failure to gain weight during growth.
B. Despite being underweight, there is an intense fear of putting on weight and becoming fat.
C. Refusal to accept low body weight as a problem, excessive influence of body weight and shape on self-worth, or a distorted body image perception.
D. Amenorrhea (abnormal absence of a minimum of three successive menstrual cycles).

Treatment
Psychological treatment
It includes cognitive analytic therapy (CAT),cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT), interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT), focal psychodynamic therapy and family interventions focused explicitly on eating disorders.

Medication
Certain antidepressant medications called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) might be used to help control anxiety and depression associated with an eating disorder.
Nutrition counseling
This strategy is designed to teach a healthy approach to food and weight, to help restore normal eating patterns, and to teach the importance of nutrition and a balanced diet.
Group and/or family therapy
Family support is very important to treatment success. It is important that family members understand the eating disorder and recognize its signs and symptoms. People with eating disorders might benefit from group therapy, where they can find support, and openly discuss their feelings and concerns with others who share common experiences and problems.
Hospitalization
Hospitalization might be needed to treat severe weight loss that has resulted in malnutrition and other serious mental or physical health complications, such as heart disorders, serious depression and risk of suicide. Intravenous (in the vein) fluids, nasogastric tube feedings or total parenteral nutrition (TPN) might be needed in cases of severe malnutrition. TPN is used for patients who cannot or should not get their nutrition through eating.
Prevention

New research findings are showing that some of the “traits” in individuals who develop anorexia nervosa are actual “risk factors” that might be treated early on. For example, anxiety, low self esteem, body dissatisfaction, and dieting may be identified and interventions instituted before an eating disorder develops. Advocacy groups have also been effective in reducing dangerous media stories, such as teen magazine articles on “being thin” and pro-anorexia (pro-ana) websites that may glamorize such risk factors as dieting.

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Causes of Urinary Retention in Women

Urinary retention is the inability to empty the bladder. With chronic urinary retention, you may be able to urinate, but you have trouble starting a stream or emptying your bladder completely. You may urinate frequently; you may feel an urgent need to urinate but have little success when you get to the toilet; or you may feel you still have to go after you’ve finished urinating. With acute urinary retention, you can’t urinate at all, even though you have a full bladder. Acute urinary retention is a medical emergency requiring prompt action. Chronic urinary retention may not seem life threatening, but it can lead to serious problems and should also receive attention from a health professional.

Male and female urinary tracts.
Anyone can experience urinary retention, but it is most common in men in their fifties and sixties because of prostate enlargement. A woman may experience urinary retention if her bladder sags or moves out of the normal position, a condition called cystocele. The bladder can also sag or be pulled out of position by a sagging of the lower part of the colon, a condition called rectocele. Some people have urinary retention from rectoceles. People of all ages and both sexes can have nerve disease or nerve damage that interferes with bladder function.
What is the urinary tract?
The urinary tract consists of the organs, tubes, and muscles that work together to make, move, store, and release urine. The upper urinary tract includes the kidneys, which filter wastes and extra fluid from the blood, and the ureters, which carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. The lower urinary tract includes the bladder, a balloon-shaped muscle that stores urine, and the urethra, a tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body during urination. If the urinary system is healthy, the bladder can hold up to 16 ounces-2 cups-of urine comfortably for 2 to 5 hours.
Muscles called sphincters squeeze shut the tubes from the bladder to help keep urine from leaking. The sphincter muscles close tightly like a rubber band around the opening of the bladder, which leads into the urethra.
Nerves in the bladder tell you when it is time to urinate. As the bladder first fills with urine, you may notice a feeling that you need to go. The sensation to urinate becomes stronger as the bladder continues to fill. As it reaches its limit, nerves from the bladder send a message to the brain that the bladder is full and the urge to empty your bladder intensifies.
When you urinate, the brain signals the bladder muscle to tighten, squeezing urine out of the bladder. At the same time, the brain signals the sphincter muscles to relax. As these muscles relax, urine exits the bladder through the urethra. When all the signals occur in the correct order, normal urination occurs.

What causes urinary retention?
Urinary retention can be caused by an obstruction in the urinary tract or by nerve problems that interfere with signals between the brain and the bladder. If the nerves aren’t working properly, the brain may not get the message that the bladder is full. Even if you know that your bladder is full, the bladder muscle that squeezes urine out may not get the signal that it is time to push, or the sphincter muscles may not get the signal that it is time to relax. A weak bladder muscle can also cause retention.
Nerve Disease or Spinal Cord Injury
Many events or conditions can damage nerves and nerve pathways. Some of the most common causes are
vaginal childbirth
infections of the brain or spinal cord
diabetes
stroke
accidents that injure the brain or spinal cord
multiple sclerosis
heavy metal poisoning
pelvic injury or trauma
In addition, some children are born with nerve problems that can keep the bladder from releasing urine.
Prostate Enlargement: Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
As a man ages, his prostate gland may enlarge. Doctors call the condition benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), or benign prostatic hypertrophy.
As the prostate enlarges, the layer of tissue surrounding it stops it from expanding, causing the gland to press against the urethra like a clamp on a garden hose. As a result, the bladder wall becomes thicker and irritable. The bladder begins to contract even when it contains small amounts of urine, causing more frequent urination. Eventually, the bladder weakens and loses the ability to empty itself, so urine remains in the bladder.
Infection
Infections cause swelling and irritation, or inflammation. A urinary tract infection (UTI) may cause retention if the urethra becomes inflamed and swells shut.
Surgery
During surgery, anesthesia is often administered to block pain signals, and fluid is given intravenously to compensate for possible blood loss. The combination may result in a full bladder with impaired nerve function. Consequently, many patients have urinary retention after surgery.
Medication
Many medicines work by calming overactive nerve signals. Various classes of drugs that block various signals may be used to treat allergies, stomach cramps, muscle spasms, anxiety, or depression. Some medicines are used to treat urinary incontinence and overactive bladder. The drugs that may cause urinary retention include
antihistamines to treat allergies
fexofenadine (Allegra)
diphenhydramine (Benadryl)
chlorpheniramine (Chlor-Trimeton)
cetirizine (Zyrtec)

anticholinergics/antispasmodics to treat stomach cramps, muscle spasms, and urinary incontinence
hyoscyamine (Levbid, Cystospaz, Anaspaz, Gastrosed)
oxybutynin (Ditropan, Ditropan XL, Oxytrol)
tolterodine (Detrol, Detrol LA)
propantheline (Pro-Banthine)

tricyclic antidepressants to treat anxiety and depression
imipramine (Tofranil)
amitriptyline (Elavil, Endep)
nortriptyline (Aventyl, Pamelor)
doxepin (Novo-Doxepin, Sinequan)
Bladder Stone
A stone formed anywhere in the urinary tract may become lodged in the bladder. If the stone is large enough, it can block the opening to the urethra like a bathtub plug.
Cystocele and Rectocele
A cystocele occurs when the wall between a woman’s bladder and her vagina weakens and allows the bladder to droop into the vagina. The abnormal position of the bladder may cause urine to remain trapped. In a rectocele, the rectum droops into the back wall of the vagina. Cystocele and rectocele are often the results of a dropping of the pelvic support floor for the bladder. This sagging can pull the bladder out of position and cause urinary problems such as incontinence or urinary retention.
Constipation
A hard stool in the rectum may push against the bladder and urethra, causing the urethra to be pinched shut, especially if a rectocele is present.
Urethral Stricture
A stricture is a narrowing or closure of a tube. Men may have a narrowing of the urethra, usually caused by scarring after a trauma to the penis. Infection is a less common cause of scarring and closure in the urethra.

What are the symptoms of urinary retention?
Acute urinary retention causes great discomfort, and even pain. You feel an urgent need to urinate but you simply can’t. The lower belly is bloated.
Chronic urinary retention, by comparison, causes mild but constant discomfort. You have difficulty starting a stream of urine. Once started, the flow is weak. You may need to go frequently, and once you finish, you still feel the need to urinate. You may dribble between trips to the toilet because your bladder is constantly full, a condition called overflow incontinence.

How is urinary retention diagnosed?
Your doctor will order a number of tests to diagnose your condition.
History of Complaints and Physical Examination
A physician will suspect urinary retention by your symptoms and will attempt to confirm the diagnosis with a physical examination of the lower abdomen. The physician may be able to feel the distended bladder by lightly tapping on your lower belly. Tapping or striking for diagnostic purposes is called percussing.
Urine Sample
A urine sample will be examined for signs of infection, which may be a cause or a result of urinary retention.
Bladder Scan
A bladder scan uses a portable ultrasound device that can determine how much urine is in your bladder. You will be asked to urinate, and then your doctor or nurse will use the bladder scan to determine the post-void residual (PVR). The word residual refers to the amount of urine left in the bladder after urination. If you typically have a PVR of 100 milliliters or more, you are considered to have chronic urinary retention.
Cystoscopy
Your doctor may use a cystoscope to see inside your bladder and urethra. The cystoscope has lenses like a telescope or microscope. These lenses let the doctor focus on the inner surfaces of the urinary tract.
Some cystoscopes use optical fibers made of flexible glass that carry an image from the tip of the instrument to a viewing piece at the other end. The fiber-optic cystoscope is as thin as a pencil and has a light at the tip. The doctor can use the cystoscope to find and perhaps remove a stone that may be blocking the bladder opening. The device can help the doctor identify narrowing of the urethra from prostate enlargement or UTI.
X Ray and Computerized Tomography (CT) Scan
A conventional x ray may show a spot where the urinary tract is narrowed or obstructed. It may show that the bladder is out of its normal position. CT scans use multiple x-ray images to construct a better view of internal organs, which may help find stones or other obstructions.
Blood Test for Prostate-specific Antigen (PSA)
Men may be given a blood test to measure their PSA, a substance in the blood that may indicate prostate cancer or other prostate problems. A high PSA score may prompt further tests, such as a transrectal ultrasound, with or without biopsy of the prostate.
Prostate Fluid Sample
The doctor may ask for a prostate fluid sample to check for prostatitis-inflammation of the prostate-a condition that can cause the prostate to swell and pinch the urethra. The doctor will obtain the sample by inserting a gloved finger into the rectum and massaging the prostate until fluid drains through the urethra. A doctor will not massage a prostate for prostatic fluid if urinary retention is suspected as the primary diagnosis. Only when urinary retention is ruled out would the doctor do this test.
Urodynamic Tests
Urodynamic tests include different techniques to measure the bladder’s ability to empty steadily and completely. In a pressure flow study, you will be asked to empty your bladder so that a special catheter can measure the pressure required to start a stream. This pressure flow study helps to identify bladder outlet obstruction from prostate enlargement or cystocele.
If your doctor or nurse thinks your urinary problem is related to nerve damage, you may be given an electromyography. This test measures the muscle activity in the urethral sphincter using sensors placed on the skin near the urethra and rectum. Sometimes the sensors are on the urethral or rectal catheter. A catheter is a thin, flexible tube that can be guided into openings of the body. Muscle activity is recorded on a machine. The patterns of the impulses will show whether the messages sent to the bladder and urethra are coordinated correctly.

How is urinary retention treated?
Catheterization
With acute urinary retention, treatment begins with the insertion of a catheter through the urethra to drain the bladder. This initial treatment relieves the immediate distress of a full bladder and prevents permanent bladder damage. Long-term treatment for any case of urinary retention depends on the cause.
The cause of acute urinary retention may be temporary. For example, if you have retention after surgery, you will probably regain your ability to urinate after the effects of the anesthesia wear off. In such cases, you may need to have a catheter inserted once or twice with no other treatment required after you have shown you can urinate on your own.
If you have chronic urinary retention, or if acute retention appears to become chronic, further treatment will be necessary. You may need to continue using a catheter if other options do not work for you. You may be taught to catheterize yourself as needed. You will need to learn sterile technique to avoid UTIs.
Treatments to Relieve Prostate Enlargement
The treatments for prostate enlargement range from medication to surgery. For more information, see the fact sheet Prostate Enlargement: Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia from the National Kidney and Urologic Diseases Information Clearinghouse.
Surgery for Women with Cystocele or Rectocele
Women may need surgery to lift a fallen bladder or rectum. The most common procedure for cystocele and rectocele repair is for the surgeon to make an incision in the wall of the vagina to find the defect or hole in the membrane-a wall of tissue called fascia-that normally separates the vagina from the other pelvic organs. The surgeon places sutures in the fascia to close up the defect, then closes the incision in the vaginal wall with more stitches, removing any excess tissue. These suturing steps tighten the layers of tissue that separate the organs, creating more support for the pelvic organs.
Treatments for Men with Urethral Stricture
If a man is diagnosed with urethral stricture, a doctor can perform a procedure called dilation, in which increasingly wider tubes are inserted into the urethra to widen the stricture. An alternate method is to inflate a small balloon at the end of a catheter inside the urethra.
A surgeon can repair a stricture by performing an internal urethrotomy. The surgeon advances a catheter up to the stricture and uses a knife or laser to make an incision that opens the stricture.
Another treatment for urethral stricture in men is placement of a wire mesh tube, called a stent, to keep the passage open.

What are the complications of urinary retention?
Urinary Tract Infection
Urine is normally sterile, and the normal flow of urine usually prevents bacteria from growing in the urinary tract. When urine stays in the bladder, however, bacteria have a chance to grow and infect the urinary tract.
Bladder Damage
If the bladder becomes stretched too far or for long periods, the muscle may be permanently damaged and lose its ability to contract.
Chronic Kidney Disease
If urine backs up into the kidneys, permanent kidney damage can lead to reduced kidney function and chronic kidney disease. If you lose too much of your kidney function, you will need dialysis or a kidney transplant to stay alive.

What are the complications of treatments for urinary retention?
UTI from Catheter Use
Placement of a urinary catheter provides an opportunity for bacteria to enter the urinary tract. Bacteria may come from the patient’s anus and perineum or from the health worker’s hands. Health workers must take great care, using sterile technique, when placing a catheter. If you are performing clean intermittent catheterization, you must follow the same sterile procedures every time you handle the catheter.
Incontinence and Erectile Dysfunction After Prostate Surgery
Transurethral surgery to treat an enlarged prostate may result in loss of bladder control or erection problems in some men. These problems are usually temporary. Most men recover their bladder control in a few weeks or months, and most recover their sexual function within 1 year after the operation.

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Chlamydia

Most people have no symptoms. Abnormal discharge from the penis or vagina, pain in the testicles, and burning with urinating. Long-term irritation may cause lower abdominal pain, inflammation of the eyes and skin lesions. In women, it can cause inflammation of the pelvic organs pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). Chlamydia an be completely cured, but can be caught again, especially if both sex partners aren’t treated.

Genital Herpes

Small red bumps, blisters, or open sores on the penis, vagina, or areas close by. Also, vaginal discharge in women. Fever, headache, and muscle aches. Pain when urinating. Itching, burning, or swollen glands in genital area. Pain in legs, buttocks, or genital area. Symptoms may go away and then come back. Some people may have no symptoms. There is no cure. Treatment includes taking a medicine to lower severity of symptoms.

Gonorrhea

Pain or burning when urinating. Yellowish and sometimes bloody discharge from the penis or vagina. But, many men have no symptoms. Can be completely cured, but can be caught again, especially if both sex partners aren’t treated.

Hepatitis B

Mild fever. Headache and muscle aches, joint pain. Tiredness. Loss of appetite. Nausea and vomiting. Dark-colored urine and pale bowel movements. Stomach pain. Skin and whites of eyes turning yellow (jaundice). About 30% of people have no symptoms. Treatment inlcudes taking a medicine to help the liver fight damage from the virus. There are medications available to treat long-lasting (chronic) HBV-infection. These work for some people, but there is no cure for hepatitis B when you first get it.
Fortunately, routine immunization of all children with the Hepatitis B vaccine will hopefully eliminate future Hepatitis B infections.

HIV Infection And Aids

May have no symptoms for 10 years or more. Extreme fatigue. Rapid weight loss. Frequent low-grade fevers and night sweats. Frequent yeast infections (in the mouth). Red, brown, or purplish blotches on or under the skin or inside the mouth, nose, or eyelids. Women can have vaginal yeast infections and other STDs, pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), and menstrual cycle changes. There is no cure. Treatment includes taking medicines to stop the virus from replicating, or making copies of itself.
Keep in mind that the CDC recommends that routine screening for HIV should begin for all teens at age 13 and then repeated each year if they are at high risk for getting an HIV infection.

Genital Warts (Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

Genital warts that usually first appear as small, hard painless bumps on the penis, in the vaginal area, or around the anus. They sometimes can be hard to see, but if left untreated can turn into a fleshy, cauliflower-like appearance. Some people have no apparent symptoms. HPV is linked with a higher risk of cervical cancer in women.
Gardasil, the HPV vaccine, will hopefully decrease the risk of getting genital warts and cervical cancer and can be given to girls between the ages of 9 and 26 years of age.

Syphilis

In the first (primary) stage, about 10 days to six weeks after exposure: a painless sore (chancre) or many sores that will heal on their own. If not treated, infection spreads to the next stage. Secondary stage: skin rash that usually does not itch and clears on its own. Fever, swollen lymph glands, sore throat, patchy hair loss, headaches, weight loss, muscle aches, and tiredness. Latent (hidden) stage: symptoms disappear, but infection remains in body and can damage the brain, nerves, eyes, heart, blood vessels, liver, bones, and joints. Late stage: not able to coordinate muscle movements, paralysis, numbness, gradual blindness, dementia, and possibly death. Can be completely cured, but can be caught again, especially if both sex partners aren’t treated.

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What’re enzymes?

Enzymes are protein molecules t produced within an organism that are used a catalysts for biochemical reactions. In other words, enzymes act as catalysts for organic biochemical reactions speeding the rate at which a biochemical reaction proceeds but not altering the direction or nature of the reaction. Enzymes are biological catalysts. Like any catalyst, enzymes work by lowering the activation energy of a reaction, thus allowing the reaction to proceed to its steady state or completion much faster than it otherwise would. Enzymes can accelerate, often by several orders of magnitude, reactions that under the mild conditions of cellular concentrations, temperature, pH, and pressure would proceed imperceptibly (or not at all) in the absence of the enzyme. In enzymes, as with other proteins, function is determined by structure. An enzyme can be a monomeric protein made up of about hundred amino acids or more, or an oligomeric protein consisting of several monomers, different or identical, that act together as a unit.

Enzymes act on substrates to yield products, they facilitate chemical reactions but are not changed by the reaction. Enzymes are necessary within biological cells because most chemical reactions required by the cell would occur too slowly to sustain life. Enzymes can increase reaction rate by favoring or enabling a different reaction pathway with a lower activation energy, making it easier for the reaction to occur. The overall rate of enzyme mediated reactions depends on many factors. Enzymes are essential to living organisms, and a malfunction of even a single enzyme out of approximately 2,000 types present in our bodies can lead to severe or lethal illness. Enzymes are generally named by adding the ending “-ase” to the name of the substance on which the enzyme acts (for example, protease is an enzyme that acts on proteins).

Digestion and digestive system
Digestion is the process by which organisms break down sludge, creating as by-products methane gas, carbon dioxide, solid organic material and water. Digestion involves physically breaking down the food by chewing and churning in the stomach. Food is also chemically broken down by digestive juices that are produced in the stomach and other parts of the digestive tract. Starts in the mouth, continues in the stomach and small intestine, and is completed in the large intestine. Digestive systems are the organs in the body that break down and absorb food. Organs that make up the digestive system are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. Organs that help with digestion but are not part of the digestive tract are the tongue, glands in the mouth that make saliva, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder. The gastrointestinal or digestive tract, also referred to as the GI tract or the alimentary canal or the gut, is the system of organs within multicellular animals which takes in food, digests it to extract energy and nutrients, and expels the remaining waste. In the stomach, food is churned and thoroughly mixed with acid and other digestive enzymes with digestive fluid to further decompose it chemically. As the acidic level changes in the stomach and later parts of the digestive tract, more enzymes are activated or deactivated to extract and process various nutrients. After being processed in the stomach, food is passed to the small intestine through the pyloric sphincter where it is further mixed with secretions such as bile, which helps aid in fat digestion, and the enzymes maltase, lactase and sucrase, to process sugars.

Functions of digestive enzymes
Digestive enzymes are complex proteins involved in digestion that stimulate chemical changes in other substances. Digestive enzymes help break down these complex sugars into simple sugars that are more easily digestible. Nutrition in animals relies on digestive enzymes such
as salivary amylase, trypsin and chymotrypsin. Their primary role is for the digestion of food and making nutrients available to all of the body processes which need them. The main sites of action are the oral cavity, the stomach, the duodenum and the jejunum. They are secreted by different glands: the salivary glands, the glands in the stomach, the pancreas, and the glands in the small intestines.

In the oral cavity, salivary glands secrete pytalin. It is a type of α-amylase, which digests starch into small segments of multiple sugars and into individual soluble sugars. Secreted by small and large salivary glands. The enzymes that get secreted in the stomach are called gastric enzymes. Pepsin is the main gastric enzyme. As it breaks proteins into smaller peptide fragments, it is a peptidase. Gelatinase, degrades type I and type V gelatin and type IV and V collagen, which are proteoglycans in meat. Gastric amylase degrades starch, but is of minor significance. Gastric lipase is a tributyrase by its biochemical activity, as it acts almost exclusively on tributyrin, a butter fat.

The pancreas is the main digestive gland in our body. It secretes many enzymes. Trypsin, is a peptidase, like pepsin in the stomach. Chymotrypsin, also a peptidase. Carboxypolypeptidase, splits peptide fragments into individual amino acids. It is a protease. Several elastases that degrade the protein elastin and some other proteins. Several nucleases that degrade nucleic acids. Pancreatic amylase that, besides starch and glycogen, degrades also most other hydrocarbons, but not cellulose. Disaccharides and trisaccharides form. Four types of enzymes degrade disaccharides into monosaccharides. Sucrase breaks down sucrose intp glucose and fructose. Maltase breaks down maltose into glucose. Isomaltase breaks down maltose and isomaltose. Lactase breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose. Intestinal lipase breaks down fatty acids.

Major supplemental digestive enzymes
Amylase - Amylase is an enzyme that changes complex sugars (starches) into simple sugars during digestion. Amylase hydrolyzes starch,
glycogen, and dextrin to form in all three instances glucose, maltose, and the limit-dextrins. Amylase is secreted by the salivary glands and the pancreas that helps in the digestion of carbohydrates.

Bromelain - Bromelain is an enzyme found in pineapples that breaks down other proteins, such as collagen and muscle fiber. Bromelain is a mixture of sulfur-containing protein-digesting enzymes, called proteolytic enzymes or proteases. Bromelain is mainly comprised of cysteine proteases, with smaller amounts of acid phosphatase, peroxidase, amylase and cellulase.

Cellulase - Cellulases are a group of enzymes catalyzing an enzymatic reaction system in which cellulose is decomposed into glucose, cellobiose or cellooligosaccharides. Cellulase is an enzyme complex which breaks down cellulose to beta-glucose. Cellulases are key industrial enzymes used to breakdown biomass to fermentable sugars.

Lactase - Lactase (or beta-galactosidase) is the enzyme involved in the hydrolysis of lactose to galactose and glucose. Lactose is a disaccharide consisting of two subunits, a galactose and a glucose linked together. Lactose is an abundant disaccharide which is present in milk and in certain dairy products such as yogurt and whey.

Lipase - Lipase is an enzyme secreted by the pancreas into the small intestines. Lipase is an enzyme necessary for the absorption and digestion of nutrients in the intestines. Lipase catalyzes the breakdown of triglycerides into fatty acids. As with amylase, lipase appears in the blood following damage to the pancreatic acinar cells.

Pancreatin - Pancreatin is the mixture of enzymes obtained by extraction of the pancreas and consisting essentially of lipases, amylase and proteases. Pancreatin hydrolyses fats, changes protein into proteoses and derived substances and converts starches into dextrins and sugars. Pancreatin is a digestant that is used in the treatment of pancreatic insufficiency as pancreatic enzyme replacement.

Papain - Papain is in the dried latex obtained from the papaya fruit (Carica papaya L). Papain hydrolyzes proteins to form oligopeptides and amino acids. Papain has milk-clotting (rennet) and protein digesting properties. Papain has the ability to digest dead tissue without affecting the surrounding live tissue.

Pepsin - Pepsin is a digestive enzyme found in gastric juice that catalyzes the breakdown of protein to peptides. Pepsin is one of three principal protein-degrading, or proteolytic, enzymes in the digestive system. Pepsin degrades food proteins in the stomach. Pepsin acts as a potent proteolytic enzyme cleaving proteins into peptides in the gastric lumen at a low pH.

Chymotrypsin - Chymotrypsin is a pancreatic digestive enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of certain proteins in the small intestine into polypeptides and amino acids. Chymotrypsin hydrolyzes the peptide bond of amino acids with large hydrophobic side chains, such as phenylalanine, tryptophan, and tyrosine.

Trypsin - Trypsin is a proteolytic enzyme that hydrolyzes peptide bonds on the carboxyl side of the amino acids arginine and lysine. Trypsin catalyzes the cleavage and activation of additional trypsinogen and other pancreatic proenzymes important to protein digestion.

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Ear Infection Symptoms

* Symptoms of ear infection include:

o ear pain,

o fullness in the ear,

o hearing loss,

o ringing,

o discharge from the ear,

o nausea,

o vomiting , and

o vertigo.

* Symptoms may follow a respiratory infection such as the common cold.

* Discharge from the ear canal is often caused by the infection known as swimmer’s ear (otitis externa). A painful ear with decreased hearing is often the result of otitis media, an middle ear infection.
Ear Infection Treatment

* Rest: avoid further scuba dives, coughing, sneezing, bending, and attempts to equalize the ears.

* Pain may be relieved with 1-2 acetaminophen (Tylenol) every four hours and/or 1-2 ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin) every 6-8 hours.

* Pseudoephedrine (the active ingredient in over-the-counter medications such as Sudafed) 30 mg tablets, one every six hours for 2-3 days, may ease ear pressure. (People with a history of high blood pressure should avoid this product.)

* For infections of the ear canal (otitis externa): neomycin (Ak-Spore HC, Cortisporin, Neotricin HC, Ocutricin-HC), polymyxin B, and hydrocortisone (Cortisporin, Otocort, Poly Otic), two drops in the ear canal four times per day for five days, may also be used.

* If pain occurs, discontinue treatment and seek medical attention.

* Oral antibiotics are usually recommended for discharge from the ear, nose, or mouth. If infection develops, continue antibiotics for at least five days after all signs of infection have cleared. Tell your doctor of any drug allergy prior to starting any antibiotic. The doctor will recommend the right antibiotic. Some can cause sensitivity to the sun, so use a sunscreen (at least SPF 15).
When to Seek Medical Care

* Seek medical treatment as soon as possible for an examination of the ear if an ear infection is suspected.

* Elderly people and people with high blood pressure should use decongestants with caution.

* Consult a doctor about treatment with available medications for an ear infection.

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Heart CancerHEART CANCER

HEART CANCER

It is malignant tumor and is very rare form of cancer. Other name for heart cancer is CARDIAC CARCINOMA. It is basically development of abnormal cells in the tissues of heart. Heart cancer is more common in some portions of heart like right atrium or pericardium (outer layer of heart). Symptoms of this cancer vary from person to person.
Asymptomatic
As like other cancers heart cancer is usually asymptomatic. It is usually persisting in tissues of heart but usually it is not affecting whole part of heart that’s why it seldom shows any symptoms. That’s why is quite dangerous.
SYMPTOMATIC
Symptoms are:
Pain (it is usually isolated in chest cavity but sometimes diffuses in adjacent parts of body)
Shortness of breath (as cancer is affecting tissues of the heart, it is difficult for heart to pump blood to all parts of the body. That’s why person has to hyperventilate (to take fast breaths) to meet the oxygen requirement)
Palpitation (it is usually uncommon, but as cancer is affecting tissues of heart, that’s why tissues of heart generate abnormal beats that felt as palpitations)
Swelling (it is in the extremities of body. It is indication of obstruction in heart’s function)
Stroke (it is a rare symptom, but it can occur. It is basically breakage of some part of tumor from the rest and causes obstruction in the blood flow by blocking the blood vessel)
Night sweats
Weight loss
Elevation in temperature (periodic fevers)
Heart failure (malignant growth of cancer)
Tachycardia (increase in heart rate)
Arrhythmias (abnormal heart beats)
Angina (temporary chest pain)
Dyspnea (breathlessness. Difficulty in breathing)
Loss of appetite
Wasting of muscles (due to decreased blood supply)
Valve dysfunction (indicative of carcinoma)
Pericarditis (inflammation of outer covering of heart)
Clubbing of finger
Conduction abnormalities
Heart murmurs (abnormal sounds)

CAUSES OF HEART CANCER
Exact causes are not known but some are closely related like
Industrial chemicals such as vinyl chloride, cadmium or benzene
Tobacco products like cigarettes, pipes or cegars
Genetic factors
Bacteria and viral infections also increases the risk of developing cancer.
Obstruction of blood flow to heart (that can be because of atherosclerosis)
Stiffening of heart muscles known as cardiac fibrosis
Valves cannot function properly (marantic endocarditis)….it is basically damaged to the valves caused by the cancer
Growing older
Sunlight
Alcohol drinking
Poor diet or over weight
Ionizing radiation

HEART CANCER TREATMENT

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